The end of World War Two saw the transition of the international balance of power fall to the remaining two dominating world political powers, the United States and the Soviet Union. The United States became primarily focused on the prevention of Soviet influence and literal expansion further around the world, marking the start of the Cold War. This, in turn, had a significant impact on United States foreign policy, particularly towards the Middle East. In being so focused on impeding the spread of communism, the U.S. failed to educate itself properly on the history of the Middle East region, its countries and cultures and take into account what they wanted for themselves. By using its power to safeguard its own national interests in the region, U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East caused strong resentment from the Arab countries.
The area from the north-east of Africa, across to the south-west portion of Asia is the region that constitutes the “Middle East”. Over the millennia, this area and its people have been subjected to outside pressures, influences and been directly under foreign control. In the middle of this turmoil, various cultures and religions developed and matured. Each of the three main monotheistic religions of Christianity, Judaism and Islam have their origins in the Middle East and have played a significant role in the overall culture there.
While Christianity and Judaism each have strong followings in the region, the greater majority of people are Muslim and follow Islam. The three religions also have internal divisions into various sects which brings additional complexity into play. This variety has led to a diverse population which in turn has contributed to the troublesome nature of the region. However, it is the continued intervention and outside influences from other countries in the affairs of the Middle East, without taking their (the peoples of the Middle East) aspirations into consideration, that complicate matters even more.
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The nineteenth century saw the rise of a political ideology known as Zionism, the idea of a Jewish people, or “collective identity”, which lacked a state for its political culture and that wanted a territory to call its own. The territory they had in mind, an area of religious importance to each of the main monotheistic religions, was that of Palestine. In the late 1800’s, Jewish people began immigrating to the area, displacing the people already there, creating strong unrest. Moving into the early twentieth century, France and Great Britain had a very strong presence in the Middle East and wanted to colonize the entire area.
This desire was put on hold with the advent of the First World War. In association to both Zionism and the war, Great Britain issued the ‘Balfour Declaration’ in 1917 which supported the idea of Palestine as the national home for the Jewish people. By doing this, Britain hoped to receive the support of the Jewish people living in Russia, thus keeping that country in the war, and the Jewish population living in the United States, to help convince them to enter the war. Being under a very “Orientalistic” mind frame in regards to the people of the Middle East, still seeing them as ‘backwards’, un-educated and in need of being mentored to become a ‘civilized people’, the U.S. openly supported the Balfour Declaration.
Upon the conclusion of World War One, in discussion of what should be done with the territories that were formally a part of the newly dissolved Ottoman Empire, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson issued his statement of Fourteen Points, with one of these being the idea of self-determination. This notion held that the peoples in these territories had the right to freely choose their own political, economic, social and cultural systems, yet provided no framework on how this was to be achieved. Multiple interpretations of what Wilson really meant with this statement by the various peoples of the Middle East added to the confusion and growing resentment towards the U.S.
The period from 1919 to 1939 saw over 300,000 Jews immigrate to Palestine. The political atmosphere of Europe during this time, particularly the rise of Hitler and the Nazi party in Germany, precipitated this as Jews were being heavily persecuted. An unfortunate consequence of this immigration was an increased competition over the land and the displacement of the people already living in Palestine. The unrest came to a head in 1936 with the ‘Great Revolt’ in which the Arab population of the area revolted against the Zionistic infrastructure and the British mandate of the Balfour Declaration. The uprising was quickly suppressed by the British, but did lead them to issue the White Paper in 1939 which not only placed limitations on Jewish immigration over the next five years, but also to declare that within ten years that Palestine would be granted its independence under a joint Arab-Jewish government. This would not come to fruition due to the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939 signaling that start of World War Two.
Though the communist Soviet Union fought alongside the United States during World War Two, the alliance quickly crumbled when Soviet forces sought to maintain control over Eastern Europe towards the end of the war. The resulting conflict between the two countries was known as the ‘Cold War’ as each sought to promote their influence and way of life while hindering the others and spanned across decades. The Middle East, a region already with a complex history that strongly influenced the social and political climates, creating distrust and discord within and between countries that resulted in numerous conflicts, suddenly became the center of a fierce struggle between the two new superpowers and their respective ideologies because of its strategic location and vast oil resources. In an effort to meet their goal, the U.S. developed two principles;
- The promotion of peace and stability, and
- Gather allies in the region to prevent Soviet expansion.
The U.S. hoped to project an image of impartiality while following these principles, but this was not to be as on May14, 1948 the Jewish people proclaimed their independence in the region as the State of Israel and the U.S. government recognized them less than an hour after the declaration was made.
The notion of an independent Jewish state in middle of the Arab world was very controversial. Policymakers within the U.S. believed it would destabilize the entire Middle East and invite Soviet encroachment. By recognizing Israel, then U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Loy Henderson stated “We are not only forfeiting the friendship of the Arab world, but are incurring long-term hostility towards the U.S.” However, pro-Israel sentiment was strong in the U.S. as the Jewish community within was a significant and powerful contingency. Perhaps on a more understated level, the Arab culture was seen as “foreign”, difficulty to identify with and represented something more “backwards”, thus it was easier to support the Jewish ideals as they were more similar. This alliance with Israel became one that the U.S. would not relinquish, implying that close relations with Israel was considered more important that strained ones with the Arab world.
The American relationship with the Arab world in the Middle East further deteriorated with the Suez Canal Crisis in 1956. Egypt was a central Arab nation and therefore significant to the affairs of the Middle East. As such, the U.S. made a strong effort to maintain its principle of promoting stability and avert any conflicts to preserve the status quo.
However, Egyptian President Nasser, in response to what he perceived as ongoing British and French political influence over the region to sustain a colonial atmosphere, seized control of the Suez Canal (which served as a waterway short cut from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean), announcing its nationalization and being under Egyptian control. In response, Britain and France held a secret meeting with Israel about invading Egypt and gaining control over the canal. Israel conducted the initial attack and Britain and France sent in their own troops afterwards. In an attempt to uphold its policies, and prevent a Soviet intervention to assist Egypt, the U.S. publically condemned the invasions and, through the United Nations, worked towards a ceasefire and resolution.
The Suez Canal Crisis led to the creation of the Eisenhower Doctrine which authorized U.S. cooperation with and assistance to any nation(s) in the general area of the Middle East in the development of economic strength dedicated to the maintenance of national independence; essentially guaranteeing U.S. military intervention if an ally was threatened. The doctrine was focused on the U.S. Cold War principles and showed little interest in the concerns of the Arab world. Contrarily, the Soviets expressed understanding for the Arab position, notably towards the state of Israel, a stance the U.S. was not able to take.
Perhaps the most blatant example of the United States utilizing its power to safeguard its own interests in the Middle East would not be publically known until more than fifty years after its occurrence. In regards to the 1953 coup in Iran, declassified CIA documents state that ‘The military coup that overthrew Mosaddeq and his National Front cabinet was carried out under CIA direction as an act of U.S. foreign policy, conceived and approved at the highest levels of government.’ Mohammed Mosaddeq became prime minister of Iran in 1951.
Mosaddeq had a strong sense of Iranian nationalism, driven from a belief that Britain had manipulated his country for years. He felt the full share of oil revenues would help the budget of the country and combat the poverty, disease and ‘backwardness’ of the people. In response, Mosaddeq seized control and nationalized Iranian oil in May 1951. From the Iranian perspective, it received popular support as it was their natural resource that they were not being adequately compensated for. Conversely, from a political viewpoint, it was a bad move as it went again British and American support. In response, Britain called for a boycott of all Iranian oil, which caused the Iranian industry to come to a standstill and derailing Mosaddeq’s planned domestic reforms. Britain and the U.S. also began to plan for a “coordinated uprising” of groups opposed to Mosaddeq.
The U.S. provided the CIA in Tehran with $1 million to use in any way they deemed possible to dispose Mosaddeq. Under the codename of ‘Operation TPAJAX’, the CIA used such tactics as bribing members of the National Front party to break with him and creating anti-Mosaddeq propaganda both in the U.S. and abroad to bring about his downfall. CIA documentation stated that this was a ‘Campaign to install a pro-western government in Iran’, which defines the objective of the campaign as ‘through legal, or quasi-legal, methods to effect the fall of the Mosaddeq government; and to replace it with a pro-western government under the Shah’s leadership with Zahedi as its prime minister’.
The CIA gambit was a success when Mosaddeq was finally overthrown in 1953. In turn, it also consolidated the Shah’s rule in Iran, ensuring the west’s oil interests in the country were safeguarded. The Shah would go on to introduce a ‘White Revolution’ of rapid modern development and socioeconomic reform in the early 1960s, policies based directly from the U.S. influence of modernization in the region. The Shah would remain in power until 1979 when, due to internal opposition to his autocratic rule and embracement of western ideals, conservative religious leaders would lead a revolution.
By using its influence and power to safeguard its own national interests in the Middle East, it can be argued that the U.S. has failed in its foreign policy here. Examples of this abound from the U.S. open support of the Balfour Declaration in 1917, to the almost immediate recognition of the State of Israel in 1948, the subsequent alliance with Israel and virtual discounting of the Arab world, to its Cold War policies of preventing Soviet expansion and maintaining the status quo and finally in the CIAs direct involvement in the 1953 coup in Iran. The U.S. has created and perpetuated the general feelings of distrust among the Arab world has towards it. To rectify this, the U.S. needs to change gears and establish a better reputation in this area of the world. The countries of the Middle East are rich with resources and the U.S. should focus on working with each of them to bring political and military stability so that all may prosper. Obviously, this is easier said than done, but is something all involved should strive toward.
