The term evolution often puts one in mind of primate fossils and theories of apes developing into humans. This is not entirely correct. While there are primate ancestors which resemble apes more than humans, it is not the individual organism which evolves. This type of evolution, biological, occurs at a cellular level through genetic mutations (Gendler, 2013). Random mutations during gene replication may ultimately make individuals with a specific trait more likely to survive long enough to reproduce. This mutation is then passed on to the next generation of the species. If it continues to enable the affected individuals to survive better, or perhaps even thrive, in their environment, this generation too will reproduce and pass on the genetic variance.
Over several generations, what was once a genetic variance becomes the genetic norm. This is the basis for biological evolution. There are other types of evolution as well, i.e. cultural or linguistic. Cultural evolution occurs as new generations of a species adopt specific behaviors as norm. This norm is then passed on as tradition to future generations, evolving the culture. Take, for example, the cultural changes resulting from advancing communication technology. It is much more common today for young adults to text one another than to make a voice call. Linguistic evolution can occur through the adoption of words from other languages as human groups encounter one another, or through the creation of new words as humans migrate into new areas with different climates, fauna, and animal life.
Physical anthropology, also called biological anthropology, investigates the biological aspects of the human condition, including physical evolution, environmental adaptation, and general health and disease states (americananthro.org, n.d.). Physical anthropologists study evolution through fossil collection, DNA studies, and primate research. One example of such research is the DNA extraction from dental calculus, a.k.a. plaque or tartar, study by anthropologists at Oklahoma University, in collaboration with Arizona State University and Pennsylvania State University researchers. Most conventional methods for obtaining DNA require destruction of bone or tooth. Destruction of human remains is a sensitive subject in many cultures, particularly in Native American cultures. Researchers in the study were able to extract and sequence mitochondrial DNA from several individual remains at a 700-year-old burial site of the Oneota tribe (NewsRx, 2016).
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Dental calculus is preserved along with skeletal remains, providing an alternative source of mitochondrial DNA which does not require damaging the remains. One scholar noted the importance of the discovery for researchers working in environments where biological tissue is not well preserved, such as sites in tropical climates, or in very old sites where samples may be significantly more degraded (NewsRx, 2016). Because mitochondrial DNA is directly traceable from mother to child, and vice versa, it is an invaluable tool to trace human migration and, which can yield important clues to the process of human evolution.
Linguistic anthropology is the study of language and how it affects and is affected by human culture. Linguistic anthropologists are interested in how languages are linked to one another, such as the romance languages and their root language Latin. They are also interested in how language evolves. For example, as humans migrated to new climates, they undoubtedly encountered new species of plants and animals for which they did not already have a name. They may have adopted, or borrowed, names for these species used by humans already living in the environment.
This is also called lexical borrowing. Conversely, they may have developed new words to name and describe it, thereby evolving the vocabulary of the group. Similarly, linguistic anthropologists may be able to estimate approximate times when human groups split from one another due to a divergence in the language, often called a dialect, originated. Sometimes, human groups were separated for so long or by such distance as to become isolated. Often in isolated populations, an entirely new language would evolve.
Another way linguistic anthropologist might study the evolution of a culture is by the changing meaning of words or phrases. Slang, common words and phrases which have specific meaning to a certain culture or subset of the culture, is one way in which the meanings of words and phrases may be changed. For example, the word “groovy” to someone unfamiliar with 1960’s American English dialogue would likely mean an object covered in small linear indentations, or grooves. However, most Americans understand the term as meaning “good” or “interesting” because of their shared linguistic and cultural experience of American English and the effects of the Hippie counter culture. Linguistic anthropologists trace these language changes to correlate cultural changes and thereby study the evolution of not only the involved language, but also of the culture itself.
One such example of linguistic research aiding in mapping and chronologically identifying migration patterns is the research completed by Brian Codding and Terry Jones regarding linguistic patterns is prehistoric California. Through the use of linguistic concentrations, they were able to map migration and population density patterns in correlation with environmental productivity to determine that the majority of successive migrations into prehistoric California settled into available, or unpopulated, land with the next highest production potential (Codding & Jones, 2013). Simply put, as one would expect, the incoming migrating peoples settled in the best possible land available for the least amount of effort. These patterns allow one to make some conclusions about the competition for resources during the meeting of varied cultures. Essentially, established populations would have an advantage due to the ability to defend the resources of their residence whereas incoming migrants would not have the benefit of already established food sources or stores.
Additionally, because the earlier migrants occupied more environmentally productive areas, they were more likely to expand in population, making it more difficult for incoming bands to replace them in the most productive areas. Therefore, migrants would be more likely to settle in the best, although slightly less productive, environments with each subsequent migration. The authors note that widespread testing of their hypothesis regarding environmental productivity could piece together a map of language and cultural diversity which helps determine not only the routes by which human ancestors migrated across the globe but perhaps even why the migrations were undertaken (Codding & Jones, 2013).
Physical and linguistic anthropology both study human evolution. In some instances, they may collaborate in studying a region, such as the previous study where linguistic based data was confirmed by mitochondrial DNA sequencing. Physical anthropologists primarily focus on physical evidence, perhaps through health or dietary data of a current population or through the DNA mapping of human remains.
Physical anthropologists are well versed in the field of biology, meaning that they are able to study the interplay between a culture and its environment, the impact that a culture may have on its environment, and how the human biology may have adapted to changes in the environment. Physical anthropologists may also study behaviors of human populations or of other primate populations. Perhaps the most well-known way in which physical anthropologists study evolution is through the fossil record. Physical anthropologists trace evolution and track evolutionary changes using biological markers such as DNA sequencing.
Where physical anthropologists study genetic and behavior patterns, linguistic anthropologists study language patterns. Linguistic anthropologists study how language changes as humans move from environment to environment, or even simply as a resident population evolves. Linguistic anthropologists study dialects and mother, or proto, languages to trace evolutionary timelines. For example, one can trace approximately 144 distinct languages to a proto Indo-European root language (Balter, 2004).
One aspect of evolution which was not apparent prior to taking of this course was the genetic mutation aspect of evolution. While I generally accepted the concept of evolution, I had paid little attention to the actual mechanics of it. Because I had some exposure to genetic disposition through reproduction from my human anatomy and physiology course, with the standard explanation of Mendel’s pea plant experiments, the genetic mutation aspect was a “aha” moment. As more information was gained about evolution through the materials of this course in anthropology, the full mechanism of evolution began to make much more sense. It has been a pleasure to learn more about the science which studies humans.
