Table of Contents
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory originated in psychoanalysis. However, he incorporated different developmental psychologies, information processing, ethology, and even cybernetics (1980). The revolutionary theory of attachment states that the individual has innate dependency and vulnerability needs as well as a need to connect to others in order to survive (Ainsworth, and bell,1970; Mikulincer and Shaver, 2007; Siegel ,1999).
Objection Relations theory states that there can be two kinds of relationships between a child and caregiver. One is called the primary relationship, which regards the feeding. Additionally, there is the secondary connection that has to do with personal relatedness or what is known as the dependency relationship (Bowlby, 1988). In the mid-1950’s, the concept of attachment was more geared the child attempts to maintain or get closer to the care giver for comfort especially when stressed such as the time he feels afraid, tired, or sick not just be feed (Bowlby, 1988).
Karen (1994) states that opposite to the Freudian and social learning theories it is not just the feeding that creates the attachment between the child and mother but as it is the physical contact as it is apparent by the study done by Harlow.
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Harlow (1958) observed the attachment behaviors of rhesus monkeys in different experiments where they were separated from their mother within the 6-12 hours after birth. First of all, the, the studies had noted that the monkeys who were raised in isolation without surrogate mother, where they were just feed and left alone, in those cases some monkeys did not survive, and others were behaving abnormally throwing tantrum when stress out and did not know how to interact with other monkeys.
In another experiment, the monkeys were divided in two groups where one would be left with the wire contraption that provided nourishment and the other with a soft cloth contraption. It was observed that both groups will spend more time with the cloth cuddly mothers even thought they were feed with the wire mothers. It was noticed that the monkeys who were attached to the cloth cuddly mother showed normal behavior when in stress, they would even go to the cloth mother for soothing when they were scared (Harlow, 1958).
Reliability of the caregiver in early childhood in times of stress is the element that lays a foundation for a sense of security, trust in others, and a positive self-concept (Mikulincer and Shaver, 2007; Siegel,1999; Weinfield, Sroufe, Egeland, and Carlson, 2008).
Bettmann (2006) has argued that understanding the early attachment between caregiver and child can assist in understanding later adult depression and treatment formulation by shedding light on the individual’s personality, emotional disturbances, dysfunctional behavior, and the difficulties in intimate relationship (Bowlby,1988; Bettmann,2006; Ainsworth 1978).
Attachment Styles
A child’s primary style of attachment with the mother (caregiver) and the ability to tolerate separation and loss play important roles in the development of a healthy psyche (Bowlby, 1953; Ainsworth and Bell, 1970; Twomey, Kaslow, and Croft, 2000; Siegel, 2001).
Bowlby had studied emotionally disturbed children and had concluded that lack of secure attachment between the child and the mother, prolonged separation, and changes in caregivers can lead to affectionless and psychopathic characters that continue through adulthood (1952). On the other hand, consistent intimate and warm connection between an infant and mother ,where a child feels secure and both are satisfied, lays a foundation for the development of a healthy mind (Bowlby, 1953).
Ainsworth and Bell (1970) studied the relationship between attachment behavior of infants and the pattern of the interpersonal interaction with their caregiver. A study of 56 Caucasian infants ages from 12 to 18 months ,who were observed over a period of 50 weeks explored the relationship between attachment styles and attachment behaviors in response to an unfamiliar situation. In the experiment, researchers observed the mother and stranger arriving as well of leaving the child. The study focused on the infants’ behavior and response during the separation from mother, the arrival of a stranger, and the reunion with mother.
The child was set in the middle of the room and her behavior was observed in eight different scenarios. The child was placed in a furnished room with toys and three chairs in different corners of the room forming a triangle. The chairs were one for the child, one for the mother and the one closest to the door for the Stranger. In the beginning stage of the experiment, the infant was gradually introduced to the stranger.
Different behaviors were observed throughout the experiment: contact-seeking behavior, such as reaching out or crying; contact-maintaining behavior, such as clinging and holding on to the adult present; contact-avoidance behavior, such as looking away, and lastly resisting contact, such as pushing away, or throwing herself onto the floor (Ainsworth & Bell 1970).
First of all, the study supported previous research, when there is a secure attachment, a mother who is present to expose the infant to a strange situation or a person, the child would show little or no clinging behavior (Ainsworth& Bell, 1970). There are two key factors in working model as it is described by Bowlby (1973). One factor is the nature of the mother and infant’s relationship. There is secure attachment by the child to the mother when the mother has been responsive, warm, and consistent in relation to the infant, which lays a foundation for a positive attitude by the child (Bowlby, 1980). The second factor relates to whether the infant develops a sense of herself as person whose needs will be met (Bowlby,1973). In cases where a child experiences abuse or neglect, the child’s working model will be shattered since believing that outside is dangerous and that there is something wrong with the self (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007).
Ainsworth experiment demonstrated that when there was an absence of secure attachment, the infant was not interested in exploring the new environment and engaged in behaviors such as looking around for the mother and crying. In such situations, even when the mother returned, the child would cry for a period of time and fail to engage in exploringn(Ainsworth & Bell , 1970).
In addition, Ainsworth observed a large decrease in exploratory behavior when the infant was alone with the mother in comparison to when the stranger was present. The infant explored the environment more eagerly while the mother was present than when alone with the stranger (Ainsworth & Bell 1970).
The study found that the child cried the first time the parent left the room, but less when mother came back. The second time that the mother left, the crying increased when the infant was left alone but the crying did not decrease when the stranger came in. This finding suggests that child did not cry because she was left alone but, rather, because the mother was absent. The study found that the contact maintenance was intensified every time the infant was separated from the mother as well as the stranger. However, it was much less frequent with the stranger compared to the mother (Ainsworth & Bell 1970).
Insecure attachment is the result of an infant’s relationship with caregiver who was inconsistent, unavailable, and not attuned to the childs’s need (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007; Siegel ,1999; Schore,2003). According to Bowlby (1980), one subtype of insecure attachment is “Anxious-Preoccupied Attachment.” In this attachment style, the child is overly dependent on the caregiver and is in constant fear of separation, which may manifest behaviorally in crying and passivity. Another subtype of insecure attachment is “Avoidant Attachment. ” In this attachment style, the child has the desire for intimate relationship but has a hard time trusting and committing, so she might avoid the caregiver. The third subtype of insecure attachment is “Dismissive-Avoidant Attachment. ” In this attachment style, the child might deny her need for an intimate relationship and acts independent and shows no desire to get close to the caregiver (Bowlby, 1980).
Bowlby (1953) states that during the first three years of life children start developing socially, learning to build relationships within the context of mother-child interactions. When that experience is lacking, the child might experience developmental setbacks and is a danger of developing personality disorders, anxiety, and depression later in life (Bowlby, 1953). Human beings are born with the natural ability to connect and socialize but depending on how they are treated, they may have difficulty with socialization (Bowlby ,1988).
Bowlby has hypothesized infants are born with the tendency to be attached to their caregivers, and in order to maintain this connection will adopt the necessary behavior and thinking (Bettmann, 2006). In cases where the caregiver is not able to meet the child’s primary needs, the child will develop distorted thinking and feelings (Bettmann, 2006). Bowlby (1953) states that the age of the child at the time of deprivation, the length and the degree of deprivation, plays an important role on the severity of the damage a child experiences. The damages of being deprived emotionally can be seen even as early as infancy and may manifest in the infant inability to smile, eat, play, or sleep (Bowlby, 1953).
Bowlby (1953) states that the children under age of three should not be separated from their primary caregiver frequently and for long periods of time. In cases that prolonged separation is unavoidable, it must be done with great caution. The child should not be left with strangers, and the individuals chosen must know and be familiar with the child’s preferences. The substitute caregiver must be aware of the child’s need, especially understanding the clinginess and difficulty at night when the mother leaves and must be able to meet such needs. After returning, the mother must be prepared for the child to initially be cold and distant, followed by clinging and demanding attention. The mother needs to show sympathy to the child until the situation returns to normal. If the mother is too preoccupied to recognize or attend to her child’s needs after the mother returns, the child can experience more stress (Bowlby, 1988; Bowlby 1953).
Bowlby (1953) asserted that parent mental illness, not just the mother’s style of attachment, is correlated with childhood deprivation and dependency. Since mental illness are chronic, they may cause a larger gap in the parent’s capability to care for the child, both emotionally and physically. The parents lack of emotional availability and physical absence due to hospitalization may compromise the child’s needs. Further, financial burdens may contribute, causing additional stress.
The Object Relations model, which was a contribution of Melanie Klein, Winnicott, and Fairbairn, states that individuals are a product of their relationships with their significant others (Bowlby, 1998; Bowlby,1953; Winnicott, 1953). The child’s resentment toward or lack of connection to the early caregiver lays a foundation for dysfunctional adult relationships (Bowlby, 1973; Kinniburg, Blaustein, Spinazzola, & Van der Kolk, 2005).
Attachment theory emphasized the importance of the mother-child tie, exploring the impact of early disruptions in bonding and deprivation to later attachment in life (Bowlby, 1980, Ainsworth, 1973; Bowlby 1952). For instance, children who experience anger, anxiety, and jealousy in their relationship with their caregivers becomes detached and depressed and feel grief throughout life (Bowlby, 1988; Bowlby, 1953).
Also, as mentioned by Bowlby (1953), in families where there was financial difficulties, parent’s chronic illness, mental instability, break ups due to the war, death or separation from a parent, children are more likely to feel a sense of deprivation . Bowlby (1953) suggests in cases where both parents are instable, the mother’s absence constitutes a greater effect on the child. The severity of a child’s deprivation depends on the degree to which the parents ability to care was disrupted, and whether there were effective parent substitute to provide optimal care.
References
- Bowlby,1988;
- Ainsworth 1978
- Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P.R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics,and change. The Guilford Press: London.
- Siegel, D.J. (1999). The developing mind. London: The Guilford Press.
- Weinfield, N.S., Sroufe, L.A., Egeland, B., & Carlson, E. (2008). Individual differences in infant-caregiver attachment: Conceptual and empirical aspects of security. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications, 2nd ed., (pp. 78-96). New York: The Guilford Press.
- Schore, A.N. (2003). Affect regulation and the repair of the self. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
- Schore, J. R., & Schore, A. N. (2008). Modern attachment theory: The central role of affect regulation in development and treatment. Clinical Social Work Journal, 36(1), 9-20. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10615-007-0111-7
