Table of Contents
Metaphor is really pervasive in one’s thought even without one being aware of it. Thibodeau and Boroditsky (2011:9) found that metaphors “exert an influence over people’s reasoning”. In their studies it shows that metaphors play a role in people’s reasoning on how to solve complex problems by “instantiating frame-consistent knowledge structures, and inviting structurally-consistent inferences” (ibid:p.10). In another study by Flusberg et al. (2017), the participants read an article where US efforts against climate change were either seen as war or race. The result of the study was that the participants sense more urgency when global warming is seen as war since it conveys opposition, struggle and risks such as loss of lives and money. These metaphor studies and some others show how metaphor affects our subconscious mind and later behavior. All languages in the world share some universal conceptual metaphors and have their own cultural-specific conceptual metaphors.
Nowadays with so many people studying English as their second language, it has brought some questions into mind: can conceptual metaphor in L2, in this case English, be learned? Will it affect the learners to understand the cognitive concepts behind them, which also often brings cultural backgrounds? Further, will learning conceptual metaphors in L2 make them sensitized with metaphorical expressions in question? According to de Almeida (2007), conceptual metaphors could also raise EFL students’ awareness of metaphors which in turn may lead to improvement of students’ critical thinking.
This research will discuss whether teaching English conceptual metaphors will give some effects on how learners become more aware of the metaphorical expressions in question. It will couple the learning process with the learners’ L1, i.e. Indonesian to make them more susceptible with the cognitive framework of conceptual metaphors.
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Therefore, this first chapter will elaborate more on the reasons why the topic of the effects of learning conceptual metaphors in recognition of English metaphorical expressions was chosen. Chapter two will discuss the literature review related to this research, chapter three will explore the theoretical framework used for this research and the methodology for this research. Deeper discussions of findings and problems encountered during the experiment will be evaluated in chapter four and finally we will see conclusions and recommendations for further studies in chapter 5. Metaphors are crucial to the structuring of our thought and language (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980b). We use metaphors in different contexts ranging from everyday conversation to literature and scientific theorizing (Camp, 2003). They occur so often in the English language, therefore making it crucial for EFL learners to learn metaphors.
Herrera and White (2000) conclude that the raising of awareness of metaphor is one of the initial steps favoured in the process of tapping the pedagogical potential of metaphor. So, this study will research about raising EFL learners’ recognition of metaphorical expressions as it is an important step in learning English metaphors.
Picken (2005) states that metaphor awareness should increase the visibility of metaphorical expressions and raise the likelihood that students will read them metaphorically rather than literally. Metaphor awareness also encourages students to figure out idiomatic expressions without the teacher’s assistance and therefore help learning independence and develop students’ problem-solving skills (Lennon, 1998), particularly with reading comprehension and speaking. Further studies in cognitive linguistics (Kalyuga & Kalyuga, 2008; Yasuda, 2010; Berendi, Csabi, & Kövecses, 2008) prove that metaphor awareness and conceptual metaphors knowledge can increase the speed and retention of vocabulary learning. These studies found that having awareness of English metaphors offer so many benefits.
Previous studies about conceptual metaphors have proven that they have a positive impact on learners’ acquisition and comprehension of metaphors (Ferreira (2008), Kömür & Çimen (2009) and Vasiljevic (2011). More issues will be elaborated more on Teaching idiomatic expressions should be compulsory in order to develop a desired proficiency for language learners (Pérez, 2016). Pickens, Pollio and Pollio (1985) first critiqued the lack of attention to figurative language in EFL curricula over 35 years ago. In their opinion, this reflects how overlooked metaphors have been in language teaching and learning. This is especially true in Indonesian ELT context, where there is no strong emphasis on learning figurative language in any given curriculum. As a result, teaching and learning conceptual metaphors are unheard of in Indonesian EFL classroom context.
Perhaps a good illustration of what EFL learners would face vis-à-vis real discourse in L2 setting is described by Littlemore (2004). He provides an example where a native speaker is conversing with a language learner using metaphors in the conversation. When that language learner attempts to interpret the metaphors, difficulties may arise such as the need to draw as many analogies between the source and target domain as they can (Littlemore & Low, 2006) and analysis of individual components of the metaphorical expressions (ibid), and even then, they may transfer the connotations incorrectly as opposed to their native speaker interlocutors where context and shared knowledge are usually sufficient to help them interpret the intended meaning of the speaker (Littlemore, 2004).
Picken (2005) mentions that making sense of literary texts can be a formidable challenge even for native speakers, let alone EFL learners. The researcher believed this challenge is true and not limited to only literary texts. EFL learners’ speech would often lack metaphors, making them sound non-native because of their literalness (Danesi, 1994). Since metaphors are so pervasive in all languages of the world, including English, learning conceptual metaphors could be crucial to raise EFL learners’ awareness of metaphors.
However, whether it will give a significant effect on learners’ recognition of metaphors, it will become the main purpose of this study. To avoid misperception, misunderstanding and uncontrolled discussion about this study, the researcher provides the scope and limitations of this study. The scope of this study is focused on whether learning conceptual metaphor helps L2 learners to recognize metaphorical expressions. The term conceptual metaphors and metaphorical expressions in this study will be based on the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980a) which was further developed by Kövecses (2002). Linguistic metaphorical expressions are “words or other linguistic expressions that come from the language or terminology of the more concrete conceptual domain” (ibid:p.4).
Since this is a preliminary study, the long term effect on recognition of metaphorical expressions in the EFL learning process as well as the participants’ reading literacy level will not be assessed. This study did not assess the participants’ reading literacy directly. However, this study will review a bit about their reading habits outside of class from the demographic questionnaires filled-out by participants to see if there is a correlation between reading habits and ability to recognize metaphorical expressions.
This study will also not assess grammatical errors and typos in the participants’ responses since grammar and spelling is not the focus of this study. This study will be limited to metaphorical expressions and not other figurative languages such as phrasal verbs, metonymy, and idiomsIn general, learning conceptual metaphors will help students to understand how English language works better than solely learning its grammar and vocabularies, for instance. When the learning process has been achieved, the new skill will promote better comprehension of English speakers’ underlying worldview reflected in other linguistic expressions, such as similes and idioms and help them to reach a native-like linguistic comprehension.
Teachers can teach English conceptual metaphors for EFL learners so that they can use English much better in natural discourse since it also involves semantics and pragmatics. Students can learn metaphors in a different method than the traditional method, i.e. rote memorization. Metaphors can also be included in curriculum as learning materials for high school students in Indonesia in order to help them to reach native-like competency which cover all four skills, i.e. reading, writing, speaking and listening.
To help the researcher focus on the research questions and objectives, the following theories are selected to be a guideline in this study. There are different interpretations of what metaphor is but this study will be based on the theory by Lakoff and Johnson (1980a) which explains that metaphors are expressions “that use concepts and lexis from one semantic area to think and talk about other areas”. Since the publication of Metaphors We Live By Lakoff & Johnson (ibid), there has been a growing interest in metaphor within linguistics. Many studies have been done to uncover the roles of metaphors in language (see Herrera & White, 2000; Picken, 2005 & Lennon, 1998).
Studies about the process of learning metaphors (Ferreria, 2008; Lau, 2009 & Littlemore, 2003) found that L2 learners metaphor comprehension through conceptual metaphors that strongly depend on the universality of metaphors. While Kövecses (2005) argues that metaphor comprehension of a metaphorical concept in L2, whether shared or not with their L1, proves to be difficult for L2 learners. Due to its complexity, instead of trying to discuss all theories surrounding metaphors, this chapter will focus on the definition of metaphors, conceptual metaphors, universal and culture-specific metaphors, challenges in teaching conceptual metaphors in L2, previous methods of teaching metaphors, and review of previous studies regarding this topic.
Metaphors
Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary (n.d.) defines metaphor as “a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them (as in drowning in money)”. Drown is a word linked to being underwater for too long and the water surrounds the thing being drowned. Drowning in money can be interpreted as having too much money just as one is drowning in them.
Etymologically, metaphor comes from the French word metaphore which originated from the Greek words meta which means “change” and phore which means “to bear” (Skeat, 2007, p. 298). Metaphor is seen as “a figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another by saying one is the other” (Kövecses, 2010a, p. ix) such as that man is a shark.
The word “shark” in the expression “that man is a shark” is the replacement of civious or unmerciful (Deignan, 2008. p. 152). This transfer of meanings from one form to another implies that metaphor involves semantic extension. The word which has a metaphorical meaning in the metaphorical expression is viewed as the replacement of its literal meaning (Black, 1993, p. 27).
Conceptual Metaphors
Conceptual metaphor is crucial for L2 learners because it offers a different approach to vocabulary as opposed to the criticized semantic clustering that often appears in English textbooks (Tinkham, 1993, 1997) and in regards to vocabulary retention proves a greater result compared to the traditional listing method (Gao & Meng, 2010), it helps L2 learners to understand how metaphorical expressions come to be instead of plainly memorizing them (Radden, 2011), and it can also trigger metaphorical readings (Picken, 2005).
In practical terms, there are two levels of metaphors: conceptual metaphors and linguistic metaphorical expressions or linguistic metaphors (Kövecses, 2010a). Conceptual metaphor is the term that refers to the connection between two semantic areas at the level of thought that seems to exist in many languages (Lakoff, 1987). Conceptual metaphor consists of two domains, source domain and target domain. Linguistic metaphorical expressions are “words or other linguistic expressions that come from the language or terminology of the more concrete conceptual domain” (Kövecses, 2010a, p.4). In other words, metaphorical expressions are motivated by conceptual metaphors and are the realisations of such conceptual metaphors that appear in everyday language both in written and spoken forms.
Through conceptual metaphors, we understand the abstract target domain as seen on By using conceptual metaphor, we can “convey a simpler and more comprehensible (or concrete) experience to describe a relatively unfamiliar and abstract one” (Ortony & Fainsilber, 1987, cited in Yuditha, 2011, p. 9). For example, the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT (target domain) IS WAR (source domain) motivates common metaphorical expressions such as your claims are indefensible, he attacked every weak point in my argument, his criticisms were right on target, and other typical everyday expressions. In this aspect, there are numerous expressions that are the realizations of ARGUMENT IS WAR, which salient feature is the systematic way concrete concept i.e. WAR used to describe abstract concepts i.e. ARGUMENT.
Lakoff & Johnson (1980a, p.3) explain that “the way we think, what we experience, and what we do” are metaphorical. They provided an explanation to give some ideas on how a concept can be metaphorical and how such concepts structure our everyday activities. For the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR, this concept is not merely because we “talk about arguments in terms of war”, but how we can actually win or lose in an argument, how we see the one we are arguing with as an enemy or an opponent, how we attack and defend arguments, and how if we perceive our arguments as indefensible, we take a new line of attack (ibid:p.124). All of these actions that we do in an argument are structured by the concept of war. In this sense, ARGUMENT IS WAR is a conceptual metaphor that governs our mind and structures the action we do in an argument (ibid).
In an imaginative culture where arguments are seen as a dance, where the people involved are seen as “performers” and where the purpose is not to win or lose but instead to perform in an “aesthetically pleasing way”, arguments would undoubtedly be viewed differently, talked about differently, and carried out differently as compared to when arguments are seen as a war (ibid:p.125). However, as people from a culture where the conceptual metaphor is ARGUMENT IS WAR, we would not view what they are doing as argument at all, and they would probably do so too. Since the metaphorical concept is different from one another, and this metaphorical concept structure our actions and “how we understand what we are doing when we argue” (ibid, p.125).
While there is no physical conflict in an argument just as there is in war, we perceive the concept of defending our own argument just as defending position in a war and holding our ground and opposing the idea of another person just as attacking the base of an opponent. The end result of both argument and war are either winning or losing. As seen on Figure 2.2, the concepts from the target domain are mapped onto the source domain. Lakoff & Johnson (1980b) mention the fact that we conceptualize arguments in terms of war systematically influences the way we talk about what we do in arguing.
They also state how the vocabulary of war, e.g. ‘attack a position’, ‘indefensible’, ‘new line of attack’, ‘right on target’, etc form a systematic way of talking about war aspects of arguing. By no means are these expressions mean what they mean when used to express arguments accidents, a part of the concept of battle characterizes the concept of arguments and the language follows suit. Linguistic expressions from WAR such as the checkpoint was abandoned as militarily indefensible are used in ARGUMENT such as your claims are indefensible. In military practices there is a target archery or rifle-shooting where one must shoot an arrow or a rifle onto a target from a few paces away and if one hit the center part of the target, it can be said that his aims were right on target, while in an argument, one can say his criticisms were right on target to say that the criticisms were very accurate or precise.
As mentioned before, metaphorical expressions come from the terms of the concrete conceptual domain (Kövecses, 2010a) and since metaphorical expressions are tied to metaphorical concepts in a systematic way (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980b), we can conclude from the expressions the nature of metaphorical concepts and gain an understanding of which was the source domain and which was the target domain.
Lakoff & Johnson (1980a) also argue that the human conceptual system is metaphorical in nature. That is how the conventional ways we talk about arguments presuppose the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR we are hardly conscious of. The metaphor is not “merely in the words that we use”, it is embedded deeply in our “very concept of an argument” (ibid:p.125). They also offer other examples as evidence that the human conceptual system is metaphorical in nature, one of which is LIFE IS A GAMBLING GAME.
Although metaphorical expressions such as I’ll take my chances, the odds are against me and I’ve got an ace up my sleeve are instances of this particular conceptual metaphor, these expressions are hardly ever used in a gambling situation as they are typically used more to talk about life. They are the “normal ways of talking about life” (ibid, p.125) just as when we say “construct theories” instead of “make theories” or “create theories” because the word construct and theories are embedded in our minds as a concept, not just words. This illustrates that the expressions are linguistic expressions in a GAMBLING GAME concept, but they become metaphorical expressions if used to talk about situations in LIFE.
To conclude, the term conceptual metaphor refers to the connection between an abstract domain and a concrete domain while metaphorical expressions are the realizations of such conceptual metaphors. As mentioned in 1.1, metaphorical expressions appear in many different contexts ranging from everyday conversation to literary texts (Camp, 2003). L2 learners need to be able to be aware of such expressions and draw figurative meaning from the expressions rather than think of them literally.
Littlemore and Low (2006) stress that not only the conceptual aspect, both the linguistic and social aspects of metaphor are crucial for language learners in order to promote their metaphoric competence, one of which is the skill that allow them to recognize metaphors in L2. Radden (2011) suggests that for foreign concepts in L2, it would be better to teach the underlying conceptual metaphor instead of rote- memorization of metaphorical expressions. By learning the underlying metaphorical concepts, learners would comprehend how certain metaphorical expressions come to be.
One of the aspects that Li (2010) stated should be considered in applying conceptual metaphor in a language classroom was cultivating the learners’ metaphorical awareness. As mentioned previously, metaphorical expressions are the realization of conceptual metaphors. Samani & Hashemian (2012) claimed that the lack of awareness of such metaphorical concepts often leads language learners to be unable to comprehend and use metaphorical expressions in natural communication.
