First, it is important to note the different functional outcomes related to the two primary training domains. In a very simplified view, all muscular training can be split into two categories: endurance and resistance. The functional outcome of endurance training is to prepare the muscles so that they are able to exert force efficiently for extended durations of time without reaching fatigue for as long as possible.
In contrast, resistance training targets an increase in muscular strength creating an ability for muscles to exert maximal force in a small period of time. The two domains are mildly complementary and both are needed for sustained wellness. In order shift focus onto the training domain of resistance exercise training, the main points that will be discussed are: what exactly resistance exercise training is, the effects of resistance exercise training on obese adults, the hormones released during resistance exercise training, the effects of resistance exercise training on protein synthesis, and lastly the effectiveness of regular resistance exercise on increasing the functional capabilities in older adults.
According to the research titled The Effects of Resistance and Aerobic Training on Obesity, resistance exercises training can be defined as movement of the body that’s purpose is to enhance muscular capability through the process of targeting a specific muscle group and moving it against an external resistance force (Campos, Masquio, Monico-Neto, Antunes, & Damaso, 2016). The objective, when performing resistance exercise training, is to develop stronger muscles that can handle increasingly larger loads as training progresses (p. vii). It is important to note that resistance exercise is achieved by voluntarily contracting and extending skeletal muscles against and opposing external force (p.vii).
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One of the most desired effects that will result from continuous resistance exercises training is muscle hypertrophy, which will be discussed in further detail a little later on (p.2). Achievement in improving body composition can also expect to be seen with continuous training (p. 2). Not only has resistance training proven to be very effective in improving physical health, it has also been proven to be quite effective in improving mental health due to its mood-boosting qualities (p. viii). Resistance training is often used as a tool to produce weight-loss and improve the complications that may arise an an effect of being overweight (p.vii).
Older adults can also expect to see improvements in their everyday lives when they make use of this kind of exercise due to the fact that it has been shown to improve conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis (p. viii). There are also some benefits at the cellular level that accompany the continuous use of resistance exercise training such as improvements of the functional capabilities of miokines, glucose and lipid metabolism (p. vii). According to Campos et al. (2016), there has been a disconcerting rise in obesity rates all over the world in recent years (p. 1).
Because of this epidemic, other complications that often accompany obesity has been on the rise as well. This is cause for major conceding and requires immediate action of the people who want to see improvements in their overall health, fitness, and quality of life (p. 1). Some illnesses that may co-occur with obesity are cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes, bone metabolism complications, issues with sleep, and more (p. 2). Making use of the combination of resistance training exercise and a more nutritious diet has been shown to help people with these illnesses to improve, and even in some cases, reverse their debilitating symptoms (p. 2). Resistance exercise training has been known to amplify excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (p. 2).
According to Pete McCall’s article titled 7 Things to Know About Excess Post-Exercise Oxygen Consumption (2014), excess post-exercise oxygen consumption occurs after a workout has been completed. When the body is still cooling down after the completion of a vigorous workout, calories can still continue to burn (McCall, 2014). The metabolism continues to do this work even when the body is at rest, in order to maintain homeostasis (McCall, 2014). To expand on what occurs in the body when exercise is in progress, we first have to discuss adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. ATP is the source of energy that the body needs in order to perform many physiological tasks including resistance exercises training (McCall, 2014).
The body uses nutrients acquired from food intake in order to produce ATP (McCall, 2014). Training that requires high levels of participation of anaerobic energy pathways can cause an increase in the body’s demand for oxygen once training is complete which in turn, increases the effects of excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (McCall, 2014). This increase is what results in the body’s continuous burning of calories while a rest and aids in additional weight-loss. Going back to the research done by Campos et al. (2016), it has been proven that resistance exercise training is a more beneficial form of exercise than aerobic exercise training, also known as cardio, for people who are struggling with obesity (p. 2).
When any kind of physical activity is being performed, many different processes are being undergone within the body in order to be sure that there is enough energy being supplied to the necessary cells (p. 3). The body’s stress response system plays an important role when the body is undergoing any sort of intense physical activity (p. 3). The body’s physical response system is control by the sympathetic nervous system (p.3). The sympathetic nervous system primarily controls the body’s fight-or-flight response which according to Brosnan-Watters and Gayle L. (2013), is the body’s immediate reaction when faced with a situation that is perceived as dangerous. Some of the symptoms of a fight-or-flight reaction are an increase in heart rate, movement of more blood to the muscles, sweating, and loosening of the bowels (2013).
The other system that get activated in response to intense physical activity is the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis (p.3). The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis is what helps the body to maintain homeostasis, or internal balance during high energy activities (p.3). When both of these mechanisms are in use, the sympathetic nervous system triggers the release of the hormones norepinephrine and epinephrine into the bloodstream (p. 3). Also, the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis triggers the release of the cortisol hormone into the bloodstream (p. 3).
The release of these hormones leads to an increase in enzymatic activity which then leads to a reduction in fact stores (p. 3). These reactions only occur during very intense physical activity that require great strength and endurance (p. 3). People that are obese tend to display lower levels of growth hormone which had been shown to have properties that break down fat (p.3). The release of growth hormone during resistance exercise training is attributable to many different factors; these factors include but are not limited to body temperature, consumption of oxygen, and lactate levels (p. 3).
Although cardio exercise training is known to increase growth hormone levels, resistance exercise training has shown to be far more effective in triggering its release (p. 3). Resistance exercise also tends to increase the concentration of growth hormone due to the use of large muscle mass and short resting periods between sets (p. 3). Research has shown that people who are obese have a harder time releasing growth hormone during any sort of exercise making it more difficult for them to drop weight (p. 3). Resistance exercise training is also very effective in improving the functional capability of skeletal muscle, which is one of the main producers of movement of the skeleton, along with adipose tissue (p. 4).
There are two key changes the occur in skeletal muscle that are caused by resistance exercise training (p. 4). First, protein builds up which causes the muscles to increase in size (p. 4). Also, muscle fiber molecules are altered (p.4). These two primary changes are what leads to larger, more robust muscles (p. 4). Muscle growth is managed by both protein synthesis and degradation pathways (p. 4). According to Daniel R. Gallie, PhD (2014), protein synthesis is the process of manufacturing protein, using information provided by DNA; the use of degradation pathways is the destruction of proteins. When protein degradation is occurring at a higher rate than protein synthesis, muscular atrophy occurs (p. 4). Muscular atrophy occurs from the lack of physical activity and causes the muscles to deteriorate (p. 4).
When the rate of protein synthesis is higher than the rate of protein degradation, the opposite occurs; this is called muscular hypertrophy (p. 4). Muscular hypertrophy is the process of increasing muscle size (p. 4). Resistance exercise training has been proven to cause the rate of protein synthesis to increase, while at the same time, decrease the rate of the degradation of proteins (p. 4). To go into further detail as to what occurs during protein synthesis we will be going back to the text written by Daniel R. Gallie, PhD (2014).
The making of a protein all starts with information found on DNA which is located inside of the nucleus (Gallie, 2014). The DNA that is used contains genes that contain coding that is needed in order to create active proteins (Gallie, 2014). In order for proteins to be synthesized from information found in DNA, two things have to occur: transcription and translation (Gallie, 2014). During transcription RNA polymerase, which is an enzyme, uses the coding from DNA in order to create a single stranded messenger RNA strand or mRNA (Gallie, 2014). The nRNA strand then leaves the nucleus and travels to a ribosome which is made of ribosomal RNA or rRNA (Gallie, 2014). During the next step which is translation, the ribosome builds the protein (Gallie, 2014).
During translation, transfer RNA or tRNA, which carries amino acids, binds to the codon on the mRNA strand that it corresponds to (Gallie, 2014). The amino acids carried by tRNA bind together using peptide bonds to form a protein (Gallie, 2014). Once the stop codon is reached tRNA stops bringing amino acids and the protein synthesis is complete (Gallie, 2014). In the research done by Carl J. Hulston et al. (2018) titled Resistance Exercise Stimulates Mixed Muscle Protein Synthesis in Lean and Obese Young Adults, decided to test the hypothesis that obese adults display lower rates of protein synthesis than adults with a lean body composition (p. 1). Typically obese adults display different issues when it comes to functionality of skeletal muscles (p. 2). For example, one weakness displayed by obese adults is an inadequacy in the metabolism of glucose and lipids (p. 2).
Because of the lack of research determining whether there is a difference in the rate of protein synthesis and intracellular signaling experts did this experiment (p. 2). This research had a total of 17 participants; out of the 17 young adult subjects, 9 participants had a lean build and 8 were obese (p. 1). Researchers determined the rate of protein synthesis and intracellular signaling while subjects were at rest as well as immediately after a short, strenuous resistance exercises training session (p. 1). Participants were required to keep one leg at rest and proceed with a resistance exercise with the other leg in order for it to be possible to measure the rate of protein synthesis that occurs in both conditions simultaneously (p. 1).
The findings of this research suggested that the rate of protein synthesis and intracellular signaling were fairly similar in both lean and obese young adults (p. 1). Resistance exercises training has been shown to stimulate an increase in the rate of protein synthesis causing muscles to grow and become more powerful whether a person is lean or obese (p. 2) Because of this resistance exercise training is a great option for obese adults to lose weight and at the same time, gain muscle and a more desired body composition.
In the research titled Outcomes of Chair Based Exercise with Progressive Resistance Training on Physical Performances Among Older Adults: A Preliminary Study, Nor Afifi Razaob et al. (2018), the purpose was to test whether or not the physical capabilities of elderly adults could be improved through the use of resistance exercises training while in a seated position (p. 165). In this study elderly adults were defined as anyone over the age of 60 years old (p. 165). It has been shown that aging can lead to muscular atrophy, which as stated earlier, is the decomposition of skeletal muscle (p. 165).
Loss in strength and power in the muscles makes it much more difficult for older adults to live normal lives without needing the assistance others. In order to reduce this occurrence doctors have started to advise older adults to participate in resistance exercise training (p. 165). Although improvements in muscular capabilities have been shown in elders who perform resistance exercise, it is much harder for them to do it, especially in the standing position (p.165). This is what has lead to doctors to recommend this type of training, but in a modified form, depending on their abilities (p. 165).
Resistance exercises that take place in a chair have been used on patients with a very wide variety of illnesses such as dementia, breast cancer, and heart failure (p.165). Some benefits that women who have been diagnosed with breast cancer have seen from seated resistance exercises include decreases in fatigue along with improvements with overall quality of life (p.165).
There were a total of 18 subjects in this study; 13 females and 5 males who were between the ages of 60 and 83 years old (p. 165). From the results, experts were able to conclude that resistance exercise training, even when seated, is a very beneficial method for improving the physical capabilities of elderly adults with life-threatening illnesses (Gallie, 2014). Countless studies prove a seemingly endless amount of benefits associated with resistance exercise training.
