This textual analysis paper explores two sacred texts, one from Hinduism and one from Buddhism, found in Sacred Scriptures of the World’s Religions. In order to arrive at a fuller understanding of Buddhism and Hinduism, one must carefully study their religious texts. The Hindu text examined is Actions and Their Results in which it discusses The Laws of Manu and how it is correlated to Dharma. The Buddhist text examined is The Lotus Sutra: Parable of The Burning House which touches on “skillful means” and whether or not deception is used as a means of falsehood.
Outlined in Actions and Their Results, the duties of the four primary social groups found in The Laws of Manu are brahmins (priests), ksatriyas (the warriors and rulers), vaisyas (tradespeople and merchants), and sudras (servants). The duties that pertain to four stages of life (the student, the householder, the forest-dweller, and the world renouncer) are also found in Manu. Following completion leads to liberation as the supreme goal but only after aging and a grandson being born to fulfill the requirement of dharma (Fieser & Powers, pp. 50).
At the beginning of the Common Era The Laws of Manu, a Sanskrit text, reached its final revision and is essentially about dharma (Doniger, pp. 18-19). “The direction of living in corresponding with all the assorted rules that pertain to a person in a particular class, stage in life, and simply as a human being is dharma” (Koller, pp. 131). More so a goal than a rule of conduct, it is important to be established in dharma which is necessary in the formation of observing relevant dharmas as a habit (Koller, pp. 131).
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The root dhr which means ‘to support, sustain, hold together’ is where dharma is derived from. Dharma is usually found in correlation with yajna (‘sacrifice’) rather than being used in an explicit social sense as it does frequently in the Vedas (Koller, pp. 134). Dharma is not always correlated with yajna as part of the realm of magic which would denounce the normative aspect as many modern students of Vedic thought conclude. “Yet because dharma refers to yajna or to the effects of yajna, it is a normative concept, for the Vedic view of yajna is normative” (Koller, pp. 134).
The caste system also has a role to play in understanding dharma. Society in Hinduism is ranked to differentiate social groups among men in that they have contrasting skills associated with their social duties. For example, Hindus express their occupation not as, ‘He is a farmer,’ but rather, ‘He is for farming’ (Creele, pp. 156–157). The social role and status expresses what one is. To go against one’s dharma is to go against the grain of one’s nature which in turn invites disaster as demonstrated in The Laws of Manu 4.97 (Fieser & Powers, pp. 50). “The joining of natural order and the moral order are held together without distinction as to which is meant since simultaneously both are meant, is often the reason behind the difficulty in translating and comprehending dharma, particularly for Westerners” (Creele, pp. 156–157). Natural order is what all living creatures are bound to in which the subsequent laws of natural selection, select our consciousness, and we are inextricably bound to this which goes along with the caste system (Williamson & Brown, pp. 109). For example, if men were treated the same as horses it would create an absurd dynamic because they are innately different. This is to say that within the caste system men are not created equal because although biologically we may be the same, our consciousness may not be not on the same level due to karma. Within Hinduism karma is the acceptance of one’s past life experiences which is why Hindus accept the caste that they are born into because it is a result of their karmic past life. This goes along with reincarnation as people are given multiple lives to change their karma to reach liberation. Overall, any violation of the natural order is a violation of the moral order.
Next, to summarize the parable of the burning house, a wealthy man with many children notices that his mansion is burning. Despite his warnings, the children chose to play instead of listening. In a final attempt to save his children, he tells them that outside the gate of their estate are goat carts, deer carts, and ox carts (all their favorite things to play with), and they may have their pick if they come outside. The children finally come out but to their surprise they find not carts of the various types promised but magnificent ox carts of uniform quality, made of all the precious metals and encrusted all over with precious gems (Fieser & Powers, pp. 114-115).
The concept of “skillful means” is examined within this story (Federman, pp. 132). The children are unaware of the danger presented to them and don’t understand the consequences of choosing to play (what will make them temporarily happy) over leaving their toys behind (what will make them temporarily unhappy but will ultimately save their lives). The act of attracting the children to safety through false means is in their best interest because a better gain is offered (life). Skillful means exhibits the angles of lying, motivation, and outcomes (Federman, pp. 132). The motivation behind the Buddha’s/father’s actions is warranted because he does not have the intention of lying. The sutra asserts that when the results from motivation are for the benefit of others, the children in this case, what seems to be lying is actually not lying. Therefore, the father ‘did not commit a falsehood’ as stated in the Sutra. This proposes the teachings of the three paths to liberation (the former teachings of the Buddha) justifies the characteristics of lying for producing superior outcomes. Nevertheless, the denouncement of altruistic motivation is unacceptable (Federman, pp. 132). Just as the children are unaware of the dangers that the conditions of the burning house presents, we do not know the condition that our lives are in. Because we are not aware of the Four Noble Truths, the Buddha is driven to use skillful means to rescue us, just as the father did in the story for his children (Fried, pp. 600).
Moreover, there is some background information needed to further explore the concept of skillful means. The Buddha opens in the second chapter of the Lotus Sutra by saying that his wisdom is beyond comprehension for pratye- kabuddhas and sravakas (Federman, pp. 130). However, according to non-Mahayana Buddhists, pratye- kabuddhas and sravakas are believed to have achieved the final goal and attained liberation (Federman, pp. 130). This causes controversy because those beings who thought they had perfect wisdom are now incapable of understanding (Federman, pp. 130). However, the Buddha argues that the path of pratyekabuddhas and sravakas are only used as skillful means to help beings escape suffering and is not the final goal. “The goal of Buddhahood is superior to the goals of pratyekabuddhas and sravakas; these two were taught for the benefit of beings with strong attachments and little wisdom. These paths were, hence, only means to help beings enter the one and only path to Buddhahood, which is called also ekayana (the only vehicle), mahayana (the great vehicle), or buddhayana (the vehicle that leads to being a Buddha)” (Federman, pp. 130). The reason behind why the Buddha originally preached three vehicles when there is only one is to teach that the truth would be rejected because of desire and result in an increase of suffering (Fried, pp. 600).
Nonetheless, many people have trouble not associating this as purposeful deceit employed by Buddha. “Analogously, the Buddha spoke a falsehood when he taught three vehicles instead of the single true one. Moreover, in many definitions of lying, it would be true not only that the Buddha spoke a falsehood but also that he lied” (Fried, pp. 601)
However, this argument can be debunked because Buddha’s infinitely superior understanding of the dharma ‘can only be understood and shared between Buddhas’ (Federman, pp. 130). For example, Sariputra is an arhat but cannot fully understand the dharma realized by the Buddha because he is not a Buddha himself. Although this concept is quite confusing, it is crucial to highlight the importance of faith and belief within religious practice to arrive at a better understanding. Bodhisattvas can comprehend the baffling dharma because their faith is unwavering, not because of any self-wisdom (Federman, pp. 130).
In conclusion, what was explored were two sacred texts, one from Hinduism and one from Buddhism, found in Sacred Scriptures of the World’s Religions. The Hindu text examined was Actions and Their Results in which it discusses The Laws of Manu and how it is correlated to Dharma. What is also explored is karma, the caste system, and reincarnation as well as the difficulty that arises for Westerners to understand the correlation between natural order and social order. The Buddhist text examined was The Lotus Sutra: Parable of The Burning House which touches on “skillful means” and how deception is not used as means of falsehood because it is in the best interest of others and there is no intention of lying. Lastly, Buddha’s infinitely superior understanding of the dharma can only be understood and shared between Buddhas. “To conquer oneself is a greater task than conquering others” (The Buddha).
Works Cited
- Creel, Austin B. “Dharma as an Ethical Category Relating to Freedom and Responsibility.” Philosophy East and West, vol. 22, no. 2, 1972, pp. 155–168. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1398122.
- Doniger, Wendy. “Why Should a Priest Tell You Whom to Marry? A Deconstruction of the Laws of Manu.” Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. 44, no. 6, 1991, pp. 18–31. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3824635.
- Federman, Asaf. “Literal Means and Hidden Meanings: A New Analysis of Skillful Means.” Philosophy East and West, vol. 59, no. 2, 2009, pp. 125–141. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40213564.
- Fried, Edward. “THE BUDDHIST PARADOX OF THE LIAR: A QUINIAN DEFENSE OF THE DOCTRINE OF EXPEDIENT MEANS.” Philosophy East and West, vol. 64, no. 3, 2014, pp. 598–638. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43285903.
- Koller, John M. “Dharma: An Expression of Universal Order.” Philosophy East and West, vol. 22, no. 2, 1972, pp. 131–144. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1398120.
- Williamson, Colwyn, and Stuart Brown. “The Social Order and the Natural Order.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volumes, vol. 52, 1978, pp. 109–141. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4106791.
