Table of Contents
Introduction
Adolescence is a time when individuals bodies are developing into an adult who are experiencing physical as well as neurological changes. According to Santrock (2019), adolescence is described as a transitional period in the human life span linking childhood and adulthood. It has also been described as a time of evaluation, decision making, commitment and carving out a place in the world. As we leave childhood and move into adolescence, we foresee the concrete elements and experience the development of the brain (Santrock, 2019). This occurs in a bottom up, top down sequence which involves sensory, appetitive, sexual, sensation, seeking and risk taking along with brain linkages.
Normal Adolescent Development
It appears that one of the major components of adolescence is puberty. Puberty is a brain-neuroendocrine process that occurs primarily in the early stages of adolescence which provides stimulation for the rapid physical changes that take place during this period of development (Santrock, 2019). Puberty usually ends long before adolescence, but it is not a single, sudden event. Most noticeable are signs of sexual maturation and increase in height and weight.
According to Santrock (2019), male pubertal characteristics typically develop in this order: increase in penis, testicle size, appearance in straight pubic hairs, minor voice change, first ejaculation, appearance of kinky hair, maximum growth in height and weight, growth of hair in armpits more voice changes, a growth of facial hair. In females’ puberty is marked by their first menstrual cycle, marked weight gain, and hormonal changes (Santrock, 2019).
127 our experts are availableright now
During adolescence it is impossible to not touch on the emotional changes when discussing cognitive changes during this time in their lives. The development of cognitive neuroscience and developmental social neuroscience is when connections between development, the brain and cognitive or social emotional processes are studied (Pfeifer & Peake, 2012). It has been determined that the brain corpus callosum where the fibers connect the left and right hemispheres thickens in adolescents. When the thickening process occurs it improves the adolescent’s ability to process information. The limbic system is the center of emotions and where rewards are experienced and matures much earlier than the prefrontal cortex.
The limbic system is the only portion of the brain that is almost completely developed in early adolescence (Pfeifer & Peake, 2012). The amygdala plays an important role in the limbic system structure due to its heavy involvement in the development of emotions. Dopamine plays an important role in reward seeking during adolescence which can be attributed to increased potential for risky behavior (Pfeifer & Peake, 2012). Increase in dopamine have been linked to risk taking and the use of addictive drugs. Santrock (2019), reports adolescence are capable of very strong emotions due to their lack of a fully developed prefrontal cortex which contributes to their inability to control their passions.
Theories of Development Across the Lifespan
One theory that discusses the move into adolescence is Piaget’s theory that explores the Formal Operational stage component and the Concrete operational stage of cognitive development (Santrock, 2019). Piaget states that the progression from the formal operational phase results in more abstract than concrete operational thoughts. Piaget reports adolescents are no longer limited to actual, concrete experiences as anchors for thought (Santrock, 2019). According to Piaget adolescents can conjure up make believe situations, abstract propositions and events that are purely hypothetical and can try to reason logically about them which is something that they could not do in childhood.
Piaget reports the abstract quality of thinking during the formal operation stage is more evident in the adolescent’s verbal problem solving ability. At the same time that adolescents think more abstractly and idealistically they also think more logically (Santrock, 2019). Children are likely to solve problems through trial and error as opposed to adolescence begin to think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans to solve problems and systematically testing solutions which requires hypothetical-deductive reasoning. This involves creating a hypothesis and deducing its implications steps that provide ways to test the hypothesis. Thus, formal operational thinkers develop hypotheses about ways to solve problems and systematically deduce the best path to follow to solve the problem (Santrock, 2019).
David Elkind’s theory in egocentrism discusses the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents (Santrock, 2019). This theory has two key components which are the imaginary audience and the personal fable. The imaginary audience is when adolescents believe that others are interested in and are attention-seeking and on a stage. Personal fable discusses the adolescent’s ego centrism involving a sense of uniqueness and invincibility (no one understands me, nothing bad will happen to me). Adolescence often feel invincibile which can cause invulnerability to dangers and catastrophes (Santrock, 2019). Social media also effects adolescence and appears to be an amplification tool for adolescence egocentrism. Earlier generations of adolescents did not have social media to connect with large numbers of people. They connected with fewer people via telephone or in person. It appears that today’s adolescents are drawn to social media and its virtually unlimited friend base to express their imaginary audience and sense of uniqueness (Santrock, 2019).
Theories of Learning and Personality Development in Adolescence
In adolescence there are multiple theories regarding the development of personalities and the way in which this is achieved. Erikson, who studied adolescence, believes identity is aided by psychosocial moratorium which is Erikson’s term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy (Sandhu & Tung, 2007). Erikson believes adolescents who do not successfully resolve their identity crisis suffer identity confusion (Santrock, 2019). Erikson defines crisis as when the adolescent is exploring alternative that will suit and fit in with their thoughts of what is compatible to their desires. Erikson’s research for an identity during adolescence is aided by a psychosocial moratorium which is Erikson’s term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy (Sandhu & Tung, 2007).
Researcher James Marcia expands on Erikson’s theory of development by using crisis and commitment with 4 different statuses of identity (Santrock, 2019). The four statuses are identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium and identity achievement. Identity diffusion represents when an adolescent has not experienced a crisis nor have, they made any commitments. Identity foreclosure represents an individual who has experienced making a commitment but have not dealt with a crisis. Identity moratorium is when an individual has experienced a crisis but has not made a commitment or is vaguely defined. Identity achievement is when an individual has under gone a crisis and made a commitment (Sandhu & Tung, 2007).
Effects of Crisis
The word trauma come from the Latin word for wound (Walsh, 2007). According to Walsh (2007), traumatic experiences, the mind, spirit and relationships with others can be wounded. PTSD has been identified as a condition which many individuals who experience trauma have been diagnosed with. According to Santrock (2019), adolescents can encounter a variety of problems such as substance abuse, juvenile delinquency, school related problems (dropping out), depression and suicide to name a few. Walsh (2007), reports to foster recovery from major traumatic events, we can apply in a useful manner four tasks when adapting to loss. Professionals can help as well as facilitate healing and resilience by encouraging individuals, families and communities to actively engage in the following processes.
- Individuals are sharing their feelings with regard to their reality of the traumatic event.
- Sharing their loss and their experience of surviving.
- Reorganization of family and community.
- Reinvesting in relationships and life goals.
The concept of morning and adapting vary depending on the personal, family, cultural and religious preferences (Walsh, 2007). Families may need assistance with developing tolerance with different coping skills, decisions and with the duration of grieving. Unity amongst the family will assist adolescence with the developing resilience for recovery with traumatic loss. It has been acknowledged that potential problems that have been predominant in many adolescent’s worldwide such as substance abuse, juvenile delinquency, school related problems, depression and suicide can be the direct result of a traumatic event.
When families and communities organize and respond to the adolescent’s traumatic events, children and adolescence especially find reassurance as their daily routines go back to normal or until new arrangements can be made. The family and their villages along with outside agencies need to formulate plans and have the ability to communicate them effectively. Communicating guidelines and following with consistency in order to reduce adolescent risky behavior is paramount to a positive development.
Theories and Models
One major theory of development was developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner and is described by using the individual’s overall system and how each domain plays a role. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of development has five different “levels” that can impact the adolescent (Darling, 2007). At the center of this theory is the individual who will be influenced by all of the other systems. The five systems are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and the chronosystem. The microsystem is the layer that is closest to the adolescent and has direct contact. This system includes the school, family, and neighborhood where the adolescent lives.
These systems have the heaviest influence and the most interaction between the institutions (Darling, 2007). The next level of system is the mesosystem which consists of the connections between the microsystem and the manner in which these institutions interact. When an adolescent has an interaction between their peers and family or their school and religious group there will be a reaction from the individual because they are most affected by these systems due to the closeness of the individual to that group. The exosystem is the level that defines the larger social system in which the adolescent does not directly interact (Darling, 2007). The levels of this structure impact the adolescent’s development by interacting with structures that already exist in their microsystem.
Some examples would be the community-based family resources and the part workplace. The macrosystem can be considered the highest level in the adolescent’s development which consists of customs, laws, and cultural values (Darling, 2007). This level involves the culture that an adolescent grows up in and can have a cascading effect throughout interactions of all other levels. The chronosystem can be best described as the dimension of time in which an adolescent lives and how it relates to their environment (Darling, 2007). These systems interact in ways that can shape and change the development of an adolescent over time.
Gifted and Exceptional Abilities
Successful academic performance during adolescence is a key predictor of lifetime achievement, including occupational and social success (Serbin, Stack, & Kingdon, 2013). It appears that adolescents who come from backgrounds with families and communities that are very involved in the adolescent’s daily life on a constant basis have a higher success rate than adolescents that come from at risk communities and due not have access to strong family and or community support.
Adolescents who are involved in extracurricular activities that are related to community centers such as theatre, community programs, scouts, and sports allow the adolescents more freedom to experience positive social connections without negative peer pressure and cliques (Serbin, Stack, & Kingdon, 2013). When adolescents are feeling less socially connected, they tend to gravitate towards groups and cliques that may be involved in risky behaviors. The Office of Civil Rights within the US department of Education in 2011 -12 reports there are approximately 3.2 million students in public schools.
While federal law acknowledges these gifted children there is no specific provisions, mandates or requirements for serving these children. Serbin, Stack, & Kingdon (2013), define gifted children as when their ability is significantly above the norm for their age. Gifted is a term describing leadership, intellectual, creativity may manifest in one or more domains such as artistic, or in a specific academic field(Serbin, Stack, & Kingdon, 2013). Identification can occur in multiple ways.
One way of identifying is to bring your child to an educational psychologist for an I.Q. test, looking at your child’s standardized literacy or numeracy test. It appears the government needs to make available more funding for identifying gifted adolescents as well as assisting gifted adolescents with more opportunities for growth that will lead to success in the future. With the assistance of hybrid learning classes, more scholarships, monies available at the local level and day trips tailored to their abilities and desires can assist adolescents with nurturing their gifted abilities.
Intervention and Timeline
Kriščiūnaitė and Kern (2014), describe psychoeducational groups as one of the primary interventions used with adolescence. These groups teach life skills, coping skills, and aid them in gaining necessary skill sets for their development. Lerner’s Positive Youth Development model is used frequently with adolescence in the school setting, but more studies need to be conducted in order to determine the efficacy (Kriščiūnaitė & Kern, 2014).
The Lerner’s Positive Youth Development Model (PYD) outlines the “5 C’s” that contribute to adolescent development and ultimately ends with a sixth “C” as the result. The 5 C’s are competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring/compassion (Lerner, 2017). Competence is described as the positive view of an adolescent’s actions in areas that specific to health, social, and cognitive abilities. Confidence is how the adolescent views their overall self-worth. Connection is reflected by the positive bond that the adolescent has with their family, peers, and community as a whole.
Character is the adolescent’s sense of right and wrong as well as their respect for social norms. Lastly, caring and compassion is sense of empathy for others (Lerner, 2017). By fostering these five domains within adolescence the youth can be steered toward the sixth “C” which is contribution. Contribution is described as making a contribution to not only the individual, but to the family, community, and other institutions of society.
By using this model, we can influence the path of adolescence in a positive manner (Lerner, 2017). Lerner (2017), describes PYD occurring throughout adolescence and that there is no specific intervention time frame. This intervention would be useful for individuals entering middle school and would continue throughout their high school years.
Conclusion
Adolescence is a powerful time period in the development of the human lifespan that links childhood to adulthood. Adolescence is an emotional roller coaster that will aid in shaping the rest of the individual’s life. How the adolescent uses these tools during this developmental time period could set the tone for high achievements or a life time of risky behavior. There are multiple theories and models of development during adolescence along with examples of the development of emotions and cognitive processing. All cultures experience adolescence, but the family and their community may play the biggest roles in molding a productive member of society. Developmentally there are many milestones that must be achieved throughout adolescence that when utilized properly can successfully guide them into early adulthood and prepare them for the next stage of their lives.
Reference List
- Darling, N. (2007). Ecological systems theory: The person in the center of the circles. Research in Human Development, 4(3–4), 203–217. https://doi-org.libproxy.troy.edu/10.1080/15427600701663023
- Kriščiūnaitė, T., & Kern, R. M. (2014). Psycho-educational interventions for adolescents. International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach / Tarptautinis Psichilogijos Žurnalas: Biopsichosocialinis Požiūris, 14, 29–50. https://doi-org.libproxy.troy.edu/10.7220/2345-024X.14.2
- Lerner, R. M. (2017). Commentary: Studying and testing the positive youth development model: A tale of two approaches. Child Development, 88(4), 1183–1185. https://doi-org.libproxy.troy.edu/10.1111/cdev.12875
- Pfeifer, J. H., & Peake, S. J. (2012). Self-development: Integrating cognitive, socioemotional, and neuroimaging perspectives. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2(1), 55–69. https://doi-org.libproxy.troy.edu/10.1016/j.dcn.2011.07.012
- Sandhu, D., & Tung, S. (2007). Adolescent identity formation in relation to cognitive changes. Indian Journal of Community Psychology, 3(1), 71–83. Retrieved from http://libproxy.troy.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.troy.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2014-13831-009&site=ehost-live
- Santrock, J. W. (2019). Life-span development. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
- Serbin, L. A., Stack, D. M., & Kingdon, D. (2013). Academic success across the transition from primary to secondary schooling among lower-income adolescents: Understanding the effects of family resources and gender. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(9), 1331–1347. https://doi-org.libproxy.troy.edu/10.1007/s10964-013-9987-4
- Walsh, F. (2007). Traumatic Loss and Major Disasters: Strengthening Family and Community Resilience. Family Process, 46(2), 207–227. https://doi-org.libproxy.troy.edu/10.1111/j.1545-5300.2007.00205.x
